The Psychoanalysis Timeline: 

The Mini-Dictionary of Classic and Modern Trends in Psychoanalysis through the years!!! 

 

The Psychology Sessions: Classic and Modern Trends in Psychology

The essence of psychoanalysis

As Raymond Corsini and Alan Auerabach, 'lyrically', mention, Psychoanalysis was the 'brain child' of one of those great thinkers who 'disturb the sleep of the world', the Viennese-Jewish physician, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The term psychoanalysis is used in three ways: 1) to designate a loosely knit body of ideas on the nature of the human mind, particularly, personality development and psychopathology, 2) to describe a technique of therapeutic intervention in a range of psychological disturbances, and, 3) to designate a method of investigation. 

The central task of psychoanalysis (as therapy) is to uncover liable pathogenic memories; this could give way to the search for fantasies, and with the theoretical shift away from 'instincts and their vicissitudes' to the discerning of configurations of characteristically adaptive patterns of human relationships and of work in a particular society.

After extensive research, I managed to put together the most interesting (in my opinion) psychoanalytical terms, which, still, have a considerable effect on everyday life. Let's get on the Psychoanalysis Timeline:

• Apathy: The absence of any emotion whatsoever. It must be distinguished from despair, which is the loss of hope, and boredom, which is due to blocking of expressive activity, whether for external or neurotic reasons. According to Greenson (1949), apathy can be a life-saving defence in extreme situations.

• Behaviour disorder: Psychiatric diagnostic term embracing psychopathy, perversions, and the addictions, conditions which have in common that their 'symptoms' consist of behaviour of which society disapproves. Theoretically, it can be regarded as the opposite of the neurosis, since it is characterised by deficiency not excess of inhibition.
  

• Borderline personality disorder: A borderline case is a patient who is on the border between psychosis and neurosis: The most salient symptom of ascribed to these personalities is the depth and variability of their moods, since they, typically, experience extended periods of dejection and disillusionment, interspersed on occasion with brief excursions of euphoria and significantly more frequent episodes of irritability, self-destructive acts, and impulsive anger (Raymond J. Corsini, 1998). Famous bipolar personalities: Marilyn Monroe, Catherine-Zeta Jones, Virginia Wolf, Amy Winehouse, Vincent Van Gogh, Britney Spears, Frank Sinatra, Edgar Allan Poe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stephen Fry (www.wikipedia.org).  

•  Bulimia: 'A morbid hunger' - the complete medical term in Latin is bulimia nervosa. An eating disorder characterised by binge eating and self-induced vomiting and purging. It can alternate with anorexia nervosa (psychogenic absence of appetite of sufficient severity to threaten health or life).

• Causality (Charles Rycroft, 1995): The conception that events can be explained as the necessary consequence of prior events, the latter being the causes and the former the effects. Psychoanalysis is generally regarded as a causal theory, since it explains present events, symptoms, etc., in terms of the prior experiences of the subject. 

•  Creativity: The capacity to arrive at novel but valid solutions to problems, and, also, the capacity to create imaginative products, which can be compelling, convincing or significant. Acoording to Sigmund Freud (1908), creative activity is a form of neurotic daydreaming (this theory has been, later, challenged by Freud himself and other psychologists. 

• Defense mechanism: A usually unconscious mental process used to protect oneself from painful thoughts or feelings. It was, first, introduced as a term by Sigmund Freud (1905). Typical defence mechanisms include: denial, repression, projection and rationalization. 

• Displacement: The process by which the individual shifts interest from one object or an activity to another in such a way that the latter becomes an equivalent or substitute for the other (e.g., dreaming, symbolization and sublimation). 

• Dopamine (Christian Jarrett, 2011): A naturally occuring chemical which is produced in several areas of the brain. As well as assisting with motor functions and concentration, it promotes feelings of euphoria and joy.

• Emotion: A state of both body and mind consisting of a subjective feeling which is either pleasurable or unpleasant but never neutral, and is accompanied by expressive behaviour or posture and by physiological changes (Charles Rycroft, 1995).

• Empathy: According to recent research studies, it is 'the power of projecting one's personality into the object of contemplation'. Therefore, the capacity to put oneself into the other person's shoes.

• Intuition (from the Latin word intuito, meaning to look at): It is a type of knowledge gained through instinct, rather than a rational process. Additionally, it is the immediate apprehension of an object by the mind without the intervention of any reasoning process.

• Motive: The 'inner force' which drives a person towards an end or goal. The goal may have either a positive or negative effect.

• Narcissism: First used by Havelock Ellis and Nacke, it is a type of sexual perversion in which the subject's preferred object is his own body; it is a form of self-love, and it can, also, refer to the tendency to use oneself as the point of reference round which experience is organised. In a sense, it can be similar to egocentrism, and can lead to Narcissistic Personality Disorder, which was popularised by Kohut (1972, 1978).

• Neuroticism: One of the big five personality traits, which is associated with a stronger reaction to aversive situations - a struggle to cope with everyday stress - and in extreme cases may lead to depression and anxiety. All people have aspects of all 5 personality traits, to varying degrees.

• Obsession: It is the idea or group of ideas which persistently obtrudes itself on the patient's consciousness despite his will and despite the fact that he himself recognizes its abnormality (Charles Rycroft, 1995).

• Parapraxis: According to Sigmund Freud ('The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, 1901), it is a faulty action due to the interference of certain uncoscious wish, conflict, or train of thought. Classic examples of parapraxes are the slips of the tongue and pen.  

• Personality types: It was, first, introduced as a term by Carl Gustav Jung (1921) initially, referring to personality functions and dimensions such as extroversion - introversion, thinking - feeling and intuition - sensing. Based on his theory of 'Personality Types', people differ in the importance attached to external perceptions or internal ideas, and in the way they make decisions or gather information. 

• Phobia: It, usually, refers to the symptom of experiencing unnecessary and excessive anxiety in specific situations or in the presence of a particular object. The most common types of phobia are: agoraphobia: anxiety in open spaces and claustrophobia: anxiety in an enclosed space. 

• Psyche: It is a Freudian term, which indicates the mind. Its origin is Greek and is, usually, contrasted with 'soma' (from Greek, as well).

• Psychodrama (Charles Rycroft, 1995): It is a form of psychotherapy in which the patient is required to act a part in some drama constructed with special reference to his symptoms or problems, the other parts being taken by members of the therapeutic team.

• Repression: The defense mechanism by which an unacceptable idea or impulse is rendered unconscious. Further, repression presupposes a repressing agency, either the egoor the super-ego, and a stimulus, which is anxiety, leading to division of the personality into two parts.

• Rorschach test: It is considered the most sophisticated projective test, in which the subject must describe what he/she can see into a series of symmetrical ink-blots, some of which are coloured, his answers being used as evidence of his phantasy life, personality structure, psychiatric diagnosis and, even, intelligence. It was designed in 1921 by Swiss psychoanalyst, Hermann Rorschach. Although, it is not widely used anymore compared to the MMPI, it has influnced pop culture and, even, the pop and rock music scene: in 2006, it was used as the main theme of Gnarls Barkley's music video for his No1 smash hit, 'Crazy'.

 

• Schizophrenia: The term was invented by Eugen Bleuler (1908) in order to describe the mental illness previously known as dementia praecox and, nowadays, used generally by psychiatryto describe functional psychoses in which the symptoms are withdrawal and poverty of affect, delusions, hallucinations, confusion, autistic and schizophrenic thinking (in which syntax is disrupted) and disturbances in the sense of identity. 

• Sensation (Charles Rycroft, 1995): The irreducible elements of experience out of which perceptions and conceptions are constructed, e.g. light, sound, smell, touch, taste, pain, heat and cold. Sensations depend on the organ stimulated not on the object stimulating it.

• Thinking: One of the most important psychoanalytical terms of the 20th century, which refers to any form of mental activity in which ideas are involved. Furthermore, it is the mental activity which is concerned with the solution of problems; it was, initially, popularised by Sigmund Freud (1900, 1911, 1917) and, then, Carl Gustav Jung (1921). Freud distinguished thinking into the primary and secondaryprocesses, the former being that form of mental functioning characteristic of the unconscious (id), and the latter being that characteristic of consciousness (ego).  

  

References

Charles Rycroft (1995), A critical dictionary of Psychoanalysis, 2nd edition. London: Penguin Books.

Christian Jarrett (2011), 30-second psychology: The 50 most thought-provoking theories, each explained in half a minute. London: Icon Books UK.

www.wikipedia.org.

Raymond J. Corsini and Alan J. Auerbach (1998), Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2nd edition. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Picture Source Links

https://www.tes.com/lessons/ruRDevosyWc7VA/contemporary-psychological-perspectives

 http://www.narcissismcured.com/narcissistic-personality/the-disorder/,

http://www.ralphmag.org/GL/freud-mexico.html,

http://www.keyword-suggestions.com/cm9yc2NoYWNoIHRlc3QgY2FyZHM/,

http://izquotes.com/quote/230282,

http://mentalfloss.com/article/63241/10-things-you-might-not-know-about-son-man. 

Tim Voridis

Organisational Psychologist/Consultant - Communication and Personality Specialist

'Innovation for a brighter future'.

 

Analytical Psychology Perspectives: 

The Dictionary of Archetypes and Symbols in Psychology through the years!!!!

The Psychology Sessions: Modern trends in Psychology for the 21st Century

As a personality specialist, I've, always, been fascinated by Carl Jung's theory of personality types and his concept of Extroversion-Introversion, which helped me understand the positive qualities and the 'darker' areas of human personality. However, after I finished reading a book about the Psychology of Advertising and the Media, I, just, realised the power of Archetypesand Symbols (the most popular and applied form of Archetypes) in our everyday life. It was clear to me that they can 'act' as visual codes, which can help people understand the world, and make decisions.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), the eminent Swiss psychiatrist and 'Father' of Analytical Psychology, divided the human psyche into three parts: 1) the conscious ego, 2) the personal unconscious, and 3) the collective unconscious. As the third component of the psyche, the collective unconscious is the most controversial comprising a deeper level of unconsciousness. It is made up of powerful emotional symbols called archetypes, which are images common to all people and have been formed from the beginning of time. Therefore, their 'nature' is 'transpersonal' rather than individual or personal.These archetypes are derived from the emotional reactions of our ancestors to continually repeating events, such as the rising and setting of the sun, the changing of the seasons, and repeating interpersonal relationships such as mother-child (Howard S. Friedman, 1999). The presence of such archetypes, symbols or emotional patterns predisposes people to react in predictable ways to common, recurring stimuli.

Further, there are many archetypes, and though they can blend and mould into each other in different cultures, all people contain within them the model of each archetype. Consequently, since people use these symbolic forms to understand the world and their experiences , they appear in all human forms of expression such as literature, drama, art, media and advertising etc. It is interesting to say that the nature of an archetype is such that people can recognise it instantly and are able to attach to it a specific meaning. Therefore, archetypes can be associated with many kinds of behavioural and emotional patterns: a perfect modern example of such patterns are brandlogos, commercials and Social Media Emoticonsand Symbols.

Before 'entering' the secret world of Archetypes and Symbols, it is helpful to understand their slight differences: According to www.studyblue.com,archetypeis the universal symbol, which has a specific meaning for people across broad time and culture, whereas, a symbol has many different meanings for people, although it is, initially, based on archetypical features. The most significant common feature of Archetypes and Symbols is the fact that both are based on symbolization, which depends on displacement. Displacement is the process by which energy is transferred from one mental image to another in such a way that the latter becomes an equivalent or substitute for the other (Charles Rycroft, 1995).

Let's find out the magic of Archetypes and Symbols:

 The basic archetypes in Analytical Psychology

• the Animus - the Anima (Catherine Collin, 2012): It exists as the masculine component of the female personality and as the feminine attributes of the male psyche ,respectively. This is the 'other half', the half that was taken from us as we grew into a boy or girl. Both archetypes help people understand the nature of the opposite sex, and because they contain 'deposits of all impressions ever made' by a man or woman, so they, necessarily, reflect the traditional ideas of masculine and feminine. As these archetypes exist in our unconscious, they can affect our moods and reactions by manifesting themselves as either prophetic statements (Anima) or unbending rationality (Animus).  

• the True Self: According to Carl Gustav Jung, this is the most important of all archetypes. It is the central, organizing archetype which attempts to harmonize all other aspects into a unified, whole self. The real goal of human existence is to achieve an advanced, enlightened psychological state of being, which Jung refers to as 'self-realization'. The pathway to this lies in the TrueSelf, which can, then, be the source of wisdom and truth by connecting the self to the spiritual. Carl Jung, clearly, stated that self-realization does not happen automatically, but must be, consciously, sought. 

• the Persona (Latin for 'Mask'): It represents the socially acceptable front that people present to others. The archetype itself is an idealized picture of what people should be. Therefore,  it is modified by each individual's unique efforts to achieve this goal.

• the Shadow (Howard S. Friedman, 1999): It symbolizes the shameful desires and motives that people would rather not admit. These negative impulses lead to socially unacceptable thoughts and actions.

• the Hero and the Demon (Howard S. Friedman, 1999): The hero archetype describes a strong and positive force which battles with the enemy in order to rescue another person from harm.The opposite of the hero is the demon, which embodies cruelty and evil.

• the Wise Old Man or Woman: A, usually, dream archetype, which indicates guidance, direction and wisdom.

• the Great Mother: An archetype who might appear as the dreamer's own mother or grandmother; it symbolizes the nurturer.

• the Divine Child (Catherine Collin, 2012): It represents our True Self in its purest form, symbolizing innocence or vulnerability, would appear as a baby or child in dreams, suggesting openness or potential.  

• the Trickster: It is a playful archetype which exposes the dreamer's vulnerabilities and plays jokes, preventing the individual from taking himself and his desires too seriously.   

The power of symbols: Their psychological meaning in Advertising, Art, Pop Culture, Cinema, Literature and our everyday life

The house: A  symbol of the self, and the way we depict it can symbolize aspects of our personality or attitudes. It is, also, the source of warmth and light, and symbolizes safety, comfort and the sense of belonging.

The television: In modern times, it has replaced the hearth as a source of focus and symbolism for the family.

The key: It is a symbol of happiness.

The winding road: It symbolizes the twists and turns of the pathway through life.

  

The horse: It is an archetypal motif, which symbolizes life-giving but dangerous forces, as well as power and strength.

The red car: It symbolizes male sexual potency and drive. It,also, suggests the thrill of speed and power.

The crossroads: Traditionally, a crossroads marks an important point of decision, as it is a place of transition, a symbol of risk, opportunity, change, choice and transformation. 

The V for victory sign (Body language gesture): Two fingers raised in a 'V' shape was, first, used by Winston Churchill, Britain's Prime Minister during the First World War (Mark O' Connor, 2007). Nowadays, it is used as a sign of triumph over adversity all over the world.

The handshake (Body language gesture): It is valuable both for guarding personal space and for breaking through spatial barriers.

The tattoo: It has become common in the youth culture of the West as an identity statement or to enhance beauty and sex appeal.

The number 1: The symbol of beginnings.

The number 9: Through its association with pregnancy, it is associated with gestation and the fulfilment of creation.

The number 12: It relates to the space-time continuum (e.g., the months of the year) and represents a completed cycle.

The horizontal and vertical lines or planes (e.g., in buildings): The horizontal planes of floors and ceilings provide grounding and enclosure or protection, while the vertical represent stature, growth and aspiration.

  

The ring: It can symbolize eternity, hence their use as love tokens.

The spiral: It symbolizes movement, energy, and connection with nature.

The red colour: It is the colour of sexual and romantic love, and symbolizes intense passion, fertility, aggressiveness, warmth, decisiveness, but, also, anger and danger. Not by accident, It is one of the most used colours for women's lipstick.

The yellow colour: It represents youth, playfulness, optimism, wisdom, extroversion, whereas, pale yellow can symbolize treachery and envy. School buses are, usually, yellow. 

The orange colour: Midway between red and yellow represents a point of balance between the libido and spirit. Through its association with the fruit, it, also, symbolizes fertility and abundance.

The green colour: It can stand for awakenings, new beginnings, growth, renewal and spiritual refreshment. In some occasions, it can express envy, but, also, support and nurturing. Many hospitals are painted green, and many doctors are dressed in green, while performing a surgery.

The blue colour: It can evoke wide, open spaces and is linked with infinity and primordial emptiness.The blue of the sky has been associated with the male principle, while, the deep blue colour with the female principle. It is the symbol of peace, purity, dreamlike states, contemplation, introspection and yearning.

The purple colour: It is, symbolically, associated with royalty and rarity.

The black colour: It can symbolize mystery, authority and power, but, also,  resurrection and eternal life, because new life was seen as emerging from the darkness.

The grey colour: It is associated with old age and wisdom.

The white colour: It is linked with purity and innocence, and in some cases, it is believed to have the power to drive death away and provide healing.

The forbidden fruit: It is, often, the apple that is portrayed as the forbidden fruit, which is eaten by Adam and Eve, the first Man and Woman. It represents human transition from the state of innocence and ignorance into the state of moral sense and responsibility.

The maze: It, often, represents modern cosmopolitan life and its various problems, which need to be resolved. There is, always, a way out of the maze!

The head: It is associated with humans' thinking capacity. It can, also, describe a person in charge.

The heart: It is not, only, the symbol of love, but, also, of truth.

The four humours ( Mark O'Connor, 2007): The Greek physician Hippocrates related bodily fluids to four 'humours', each governing a particular aspect of health and character. They were, also, associated with the 4 basic elements of the world and 4 particular colours. Blood was associated with the sanguine temperament (defined as optimistic, loving and generous), with the colour red and its element was air. Gall or yellow bile was associated with fire and a choleric temperament (defined as angry, hot-headed and vengeful). Black bile was melancholic (defined as depressive, lazy and gluttonous); its element was earth and its colour was blue. Phlegm was associated with water and the colour green; its temperament was phlegmatic (defined as dull, slow and cowardly).

   

The wheel: It is an enduring symbol of human endeavour and advancement.

The stork: It is said to bring babies to their mothers, while, it can, also, be the bearer of good news.

The ocean waves: They symbolize the movement of life from its most gentle to its most stormy aspects.

The whirlpool: It can represent the change from one state to another, e.g., life to death.

The rainbow: It is linked to healing and good fortune, dreams, and imaginary worlds, fertility and childbirth.

The psychological effect of archetypes and symbols through the years

According to Carl Jung, the archetypes exist in our minds before conscious thought, and can therefore have an immensely powerful impact on our perception of experience. Whatever people may consciously think is happening, what they choose to perceive, and, therefore, experience, is governed by these preformed ideas within the unconscious (Catherine Collin, 2012). Based on these ideas, archetypes and symbols have been used extensively in order to unveil the secrets of the human soul in many areas such as: 

Literature: The Persona and the Shadowarchetypes were descriptively presented in the horror novel, 'The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde' (1886) by Robert Louis Stevenson. Dr. Jekyll symbolizes the Persona, the self that we show to the world, whereas, Mr. Hyde symbolizes the idea of the 'darker self' and the 'bad' or 'unacceptable side' of human personality. In the novel, Dr. Jekyll, often, transforms into the evil Mr. Hyde.

Fairy tales: Jung attributed the universal popularity of fairy tales and myths to their use of archetypal characters. One of the most widely known fairy tales is 'Snow White' (1812) by the Brothers Grimm, which was based on the eternal struggle between two of the most important archetypes: the Good and the Evil. Snow White represents the positive human qualities such as kindness, fairness and gratitude, whereas, the Queen the negative and harmful qualities such as jealousy, bitterness, vengeance and, finally, intention to kill in order for the Evil to win. The tale of Snow White can be found all over the world with slight variations (Catherine Collin, 2012).

Popular Psychology: John Gray's best-seller 'Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus' (1992) reflected upon the opposite qualities of the Animus and Anima archetypes in the form of gender differences in communication. Male qualities vs female qualitites has, always, been one of the 'hottest' issues to wrestle with.    

Art: One of the most fascinating examples of the effect of archetypes and symbols in modern painting is 'Summer and Winter' (2007) by fantasy and magic realism artist, Michael Parkes. The painting plays upon the concept of the opposite qualities of Summer and Winter and the Animus-the Anima Archetypes: Winter (Animus) is represented by the melancholic middle-aged man dressed in formal black clothes, whereas, Summer (Anima) by the seductive young woman in white stockings, seating half-naked on top of the middle-aged man. Concepts such as optimism vs pessimism, rationality vs emotion, confidence vs insecurity, black vs white and extroversion vs introversion are, also, depicted in the painting.

Cinema: Maybe, the most representative example of the power of symbols and archetypes in cinema is 'Spellbound' (1945) by Alfred Hitchcock. The two leading stars, Gregory Peck ('the patient') and Ingrid Bergman (the psychoanalyst), successfully, symbolize the opposite qualities of the Animusand the Anima archetypes, respectively, in an attempt to 'dive' into the secrets of the human soul. The dream sequence, which was designed by famous surrealist painter, Salvador Dali includes various psychoanalytic symbols such as the eyes, the curtains, the scissors and a man with no face. It was the first time that Analytical Psychology, Symbols and Archetypes had such an influence on cinema. 

References

Mark O' Connor and Raje Airey (2007), Symbols, signs and visual codes. Southwater, Anness Publishing Ltd: London, UK.  

Catherine Collin, Voula Grand, Nigel Benson, Merrin Lazyan, Joannah Ginsburg and Marcus Weeks (2012), The Psychology Book: Big Ideas Simply explained, London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Philip G. Zimbardo and Ann L. Weber (1997). Psychology, 2nd edition. New York: Longman.

Howard S. Friedman and Miriam W. Schustack (1999), Personality: Classic Theories and Modern Research. Boston, MA, USA: Allyn & Bacon.

https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/archetypes-and-symbols/deck/1870320.

Charles Rycroft (1995), A critical dictionary of Psychoanalysis, 2nd edition. London: Penguin Books.

Picture Source Links

http://christianresearchnetwork.org/2015/07/28/in-defense-of-the-historical-adam/

https://gr.pinterest.com/tiana3956/luck-fortune/,

https://gr.pinterest.com/arealface/dreams/, 

https://designschool.canva.com/blog/social-media-icons/.  

Tim Voridis

Organisational Psychologist/Consultant - Communication and Personality Specialist

'Innovation for a brighter future'.

 

 

   Cross-cultural differences in negotiation! 

 

United States 

According to Hofstede's theory, USA is the most individualistic country, a fact which verifies the creative and ambitious spirit of most American negotiators. Freedom, direct communication, deadlines, and task-orientation are the main ingredients of the American negotiation style. In this case, business tactics is considered highly 'success-and-achievement-orientated' and, sometimes, even competitive and aggressive but there is, also, another aspect which values cooperation, fairness and constructive communication. 


Bill Scott (1989) stated that the North American negotiation style is the most influential in the world based on confidence, dominance, professionalism, participative managerial climate and interest in packages. Rationality is the key-tool of the American negotiators which is reinforced by strong verbal but low non-verbal communication.

Nancy Adler (1997) revealed the very thought-provoking part of this country's negotiation 'attitude', which refers to the increase of formality in dress, vocabulary, behaviour and style, when working outside of the United States.

Greece and other Mediterranean countries 

Having the eldest culture and language in the world, Greek civilisation focused considerably on relationships and communication, and that is the reason why the Greek approach to negotiation is connected to an exploration of the other party's proprieties and claims. Greek negotiators, usually, gain useful knowledge and information concerning the opponent's future moves and actions. The Greek negotiation style is warm, full of expressive gestures and body movements.

According to Bill Scott (1989), there is a difficulty with all Mediterranean countries in pinning discussions down to particular deals or particular phases of negotiation but, apart from that, this negotiation approach must contain the types of appropriate discipline. 

Due to all the above factors, Greek managers and negotiators are not very much engaged in behaviours which promote the self (warnings, putdowns, etc.) and are, often, highly effective in their judgement accuracy of their counterparts' interests, offers and behaviours. In addition to that, Greek culture favours direct eye contact, loyalty, sincerity, open communication, extraversion, flexibility and inter-related agendas.  

References

Bill Scott (1989), The skills of negotiating, 6th edition, Hampshire, UK: Gower Publishing Company Ltd.

Nancy Adler(1997), International dimensions of organisational behaviour, 1st edition, Cincinatti, Ohio, South-Western College Publishing.

Picture Source Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QomYnjaVjfs.

Tim Voridis

Organisational Psychologist/Consultant: Personality and Communication Specialist 

'Innovation for a brighter future'.  

 

Brexit: New perspectives on negotiation! 

 

The Psychology Sessions: Current Issues in Psychology

 

'Knowledge and human power are synonymous' 

(Francis Bacon)

After completing my MSc Research Study, I, just, realised something simple but hard to grasp initially: the 2 most crucial and 'dangerous' factors in negotiating are cross-cultural differences and non-verbal communication. Nowadays, the negotiation game can be ruthless: these 2 factors can either set the pace for a successful win-win solution or can, even, lead to a communication 'gap' and, finally, a dead end, or an 'unexpected' result (e.g. Brexit).

Negotiation is a kind of joint decision-making between representatives of two sides who are in conflict, though there is joint interest in reaching a settlement. The goal of the negotiator is to reach an agreement quickly which gives his/her side the best deal obtainable and which will be accepted by all concerned. The success of a negotiator can be assessed by ratings from both sides concerning  effectiveness, record for reaching agreements, the extent to which agreement sticks and, most significantly, correct decoding of bodily cues and awareness of cross-cultural differences.

In this article I've included some of the most interesting and effective perspectives concerning the above key-elements, which can work as: a) useful tools for both aspiring and experienced negotiators, b) a suggestive framework to avoid harmful cross-cultural clashes, and, c) a 'vehicle' to clarify uncertain and dark areas of human communication, which, possibly, led to events such as Brexit!  Let's find them out:

 

 Non-verbal communication

• Many historians, researchers and psychologists, still, insist that there is evidence of people using gestures to communicate since ancient times - especially to bridge cultural or language differences, and, even, make a negotiation. The first record of the use of non-verbal language is found in Xenophon’s ‘The March Up Country’ in which he describes unspoken gestures used to help the Greeks cross Asia Minor around 400 B.C (Steven A. Beebe, 2008).      

• In ancient Egypt, law courts met in the dark so that the judges could not see the accused, the accuser, or the witness (Seuling, 1988), so as not to be swayed by their demeanours and their non-verbal behaviours.

• Dietrich and colleagues (1996) attached 13 small lights to the bodies of each of two professional dancers and had them perform dances that conveyed fear, anger, grief, joy, surprise, and disgust. Undergraduate students who later watched videotapes of the dances were able to recognise the intended emotions, even in the dark when only the lights were visible. Similarly, Bassili (1978) showed that people can recognise facial expressions of emotion in the dark from only the movement of lights attached to faces; the specific locations of the lights did not seem to matter  (Stephen Kosslyn and Robin Rosenberg ,2004).

• A research in the psychology, political, business and management literature showed that non-verbal communication was highly valued and was regarded as the key to personal, political or business success and development. In today’s highly competitive world, effective communication between or among the interested parties is necessary and priceless, otherwise misunderstandings, mistakes, deception and 'deadly' traps can disintegrate and deteriorate the future, e.g. of a promising company or organization.
  
  
  
   
• People, usually, in a friendly, family, or business environment tend to pay attention more to the verbal type of communication because they consider it to be more apparent, overt and easy to understand and perceive. This is an illusion as non-verbal communication (body language) is considered to be the most significant because it reveals subconscious thoughts, preferences and hidden ideas that people can not express openly due to fear of relationship breakdown, kindness, embarrassment or respect.

• The verbal messages sent by the use of words and sentences are usually accompanied by a rich array of non-verbal signals, which support modify or, even, completely replace the verbal message. In situations where explicit verbal communication is for some reason difficult or impossible (in the presence of high background noise or across distance), a complicated exchange of non-verbal signals may be substituted consisting of eye gaze, smiles, gestures and postural changes. Philosophically, body language presents difficulties since it consists of codes, which are not written or well-defined but are socially shared norms, which are implicitly adhered to. Perhaps one of the best ways of becoming aware of such ‘unwritten rules’ (Goffman, 1963) is to break them or act in ways unexpected by others in a specific social situation.

• The ability to effectively send and receive such non-verbal messages is essential for social interaction as Michael Argyle (1969) suggested that this ability is a learned skill like any other. Consistent lack of skill in non-verbal communication often results in maladjustment, which may be remedied by adequate training in the necessary communication skills. Generally, bodily messages are seen as more reliable, they communicate emotions, are strongly related to verbal communication, can be ambiguous, are continuous, multi-channeled and culture-bound. As body language is one of the two types of communication, it can help managers, politicians, and, generally, people achieve objectives and put ideas into effect.

• Therefore, non – verbal communication varies from person to person, from personality type to personality type because each man or woman has a different communication style or repertoire in social dealings and negotiation acts. One way to explain negotiation is to view interpersonal communication as the exchange of stories in the form of personal narratives (Ronald B. Adler, 2004).

 

Cross-cultural differences

• The vision of globalisation is based on strong and sound foundations but as every vision of idealistic nature, it has to deal with a very sensitive and dangerous ‘territory’ which can cause various problems in human communication, in the relationship among different nations or governments and, especially, in negotiation between  companies and managers coming from diverse countries.
  
  
• Apart from that, agreements between firms or countries are at the forefront of international business opportunities. Agreements are the most important international documents that must be negotiated between governments, companies or people of different nationalities. Since agreement implementation has become increasingly complex and confusing, cross-cultural negotiations have begun to represent an important factor in the globalised economy’s success and survival.
   
• Bill Scott (1989) stated that the North American negotiation style is one of the most influential in the world based on confidence, dominance, professionalism, participative managerial climate and interest in packages. Rationality is the key-tool of the American negotiators which is reinforced by strong verbal but low non-verbal communication.

• A few years later, Ashridge Management College undertook a survey of nearly fifty American,British and Japanese international companies to determine which characteristics of international management they most valued (Barnham and Oates,1991). The results were the following list of broad competences in order of perceived importance:

• -strategic awareness
• -adaptability in new situations
• -sensitivity to different cultures
• -ability to work in international teams
• -language skills
• -understanding international marketing
• -relationship skills
• -international negotiating skills
• -self-reliance
• -high task-orientation
• -open,non-judgemental personality
• -understanding international finance
• -awareness of own culture.

Sue Davison (in an unpublished paper) argues that the idea of competences of international managers and negotiators may not be sufficient in an understanding of the requirements for managing across cultures and, for that reason, she suggests an ability to: deal with frustrations, isolation, failure, learning how to network, gain support and anticipate differences. She adds that such qualities as ‘helicopter view’,intuition and cultural sensitivity may be difficult to directly teach and acquire but ,she continues, interpersonal skills can be learned at the level of managing intercultural teams no matter what personality traits one might possess. This,together with an understanding of one self as well as the other person’s culture is something which can be highly developed and lead to business success.

Brexit: An (All-in-one) Case study

The EU Referendum's result in the UK (24/6/2016) made me think of certain 'difficult' aspects of cross-cultural negotiation and non-verbal communication: to be fair and objective, even, judging by the article's main picture, it is obvious that doubt, enthusiasm and aggressive reservation are in clash. In order to explain what led a nation to such an important decision, one must, deeply, understand: 1) the country's culture, 2) negotiation tactics and, 3) communication style. 

These are UK's most important cultural elements (Roy Lewicki, 1998):

• UK is one of the most individualistic countries by having the third higher level in Hofstede's index.

• Uncertainty avoidance is very weak in this country.

• The British Negotiation style is kind, communicative, flexible and responsive to initiatives. It is, also, grounded on: focus on detail, no decisive hierarchy, refined humour, non-dogmatic criticism, task results, operational efficiency, and coercion at the expense of commitment.

• UK negotiators are, often, viewed as using a less enthusiastic, quite detached, and very rational communication style, which helps them focus on the agenda, and achieve a concrete result or action plan within a specific time.

• Time and deadlines are very important to British negotiators who, also, pay more attention to verbal communication and less to body language.

• The British organisational style favours patience, privacy, information gathering, 'hinting', fixed agendas, methodical planning, fact-and-statistics orientation, and focus on schedules and preparation systems.

• British negotiators tend to be pragmatic, less expressive, aim at a win-lose solution, adopt a formal personal style, communicate less directly, prefer specific agreements and a top down agreement (from specific data to general), and, finally, although, very careful and cautious, they consider themselves as risk-takers.

• Based on Tim Voridis' MSc Research study, when negotiating, British employees tend to avoid constant and facial gestures because can, possibly, show signs of familarity or friendship, which could disintegrate task performance and orientation. As for anxiety, they appear to be more static and less descriptive non-verbally.

It is obvious that most of the above elements played an integral part in the negotiations, events and talks before, during and after the EU Referendum. I have to say that the Referendum's result proves the notion that, although, British people and negotiators tend to be cautious and careful, they consider themselves to be risk-takers.

 

Further, apart from, possibly, unsuccessful policies, or political turmoil concerning the safety of a country's borders, immigration complications and ambitious 'independent' plans, it is important to say that each person or country either negotiating or co-operating is unique, and has its own 'voice' and 'bearing'.

In most cases, politicians and political leaders believe that economy's fluctuations together with tax increase and financial difficulties are the main reasons for citizens' resentment towards governmental policies, which can, possibly, lead to events such as 'Brexit'. On the contrary, 'Brexit' proved them wrong, although, some of the above reasons may have triggered certain opposing 'voices'. In such a situation, explanations and answers are more complex than they seem to be.

According to Medius Training, British negotiators do not feel pressured to conform to a general consensus, so a British negotiator will have no trouble saying “No” to any point which other European negotiators argue is for the“common good”. Insularity and the Island Mentality contribute to a certain willingness to fight point by point to the last. Based on that negotiation model, the British Government renegotiated successfully with the European Union 3 set of demands, which were not properly understood or reflected effectively on the Referendum's result by the British citizens: 1) Sovereignty, 2) Mobility and Immigration, and 3) Economy and Finance.

Therefore, negotiation objectives, goal and positions (especially, 'the bottom line') must be carefully planned and mentioned adequately, otherwise emotions and mistrust will overtake reasoning. Communication channels within or outside countries must be 'open' and 'clear', especially, when citizens feel 'trapped' or insecure. If negotiation positions ('the bottom line') are controversial or 'blurry', negotiation, usually, ends up losing its track, because negotiators are not able to persuade the other side. The result is the exact opposite of what was expected or fought for, and that is what exactly happened the day after the Referendum (25/6/16), when 'Brexit' was, practically, realised by every British citizen (although, both Referendum's choices to vote were quite clear and specific). 

To be more objective and specific, ideals such as European Unity must be 'revisited', redefined and renegotiated, based on the existing cross-cultural, communication and political differences among all countries in the European Union. Unity means counterbalancing differences. Negotiation's true essence is reaching a win-win solution. Therefore, Unity and Negotiation are, positively, correlated.  

References

Adler, Ronald B., Rosenfeld, Lawrence B., & Proctor II, Russell F. (2004). Interplay: The process of Interpersonal Communication. (9th edition, p. 59). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Beebe, Steven A., Beebe, Susan J., & Redmond, Mark V. (2008). Interpersonal Communication: Relating to others. (5th edition, p. 199). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc – Allyn and Bacon.

Seuling, B. (1988). It is illegal to quack like a duck and other freaky laws. New York: Dutton.

Dr. Christian Jarrett (2011). The Rough Guide to Psychology: An introduction to human behaviour and the mind. Rough Guides, London.

 

Bill Scott (1989), The skills of negotiating, 6th edition, Hampshire, UK: Gower Publishing Company Ltd.

Nancy Adler(1997), International dimensions of organisational behaviour, 1st edition, Cincinatti, Ohio, South-Western College Publishing.

Stephen M. Kosslyn and Robin S . Rosenberg (2004), Psychology: The brain, the person, the world, 2nd edition, page 314, USA: Pearson Education, Inc, Allyn and Bacon.

Roy Lewicki (1998), Negotiation: Text and Cases, 3rd edition, Chapter 11, London: McGraw-Hill Company.

www.medius-associates.com/training/.

Picture Source Links

https://leave.eu/en/the-facts,

http://www.euractiv.com/section/euro-finance/news/opening-gambits-where-do-member-states-stand/,

http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article4680469.ece,

https://gr.pinterest.com/pin/491807221777490699/,

http://www.michaelgrinder.com/,

https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-negotiation-icons-flat-vector-symbols-image54871754,

http://quotesgram.com/negotiation-quotes-by-famous-people/. 

Tim Voridis 

 Organisational Psychologist/Consultant - Communication and Personality Specialist

'Innovation for a brighter future'.

Life Coaching Quotes of Wisdom!!!

 

Many times, people don't realise the essence of their life or personal problems. Nowadays, talking about yourself is a 'luxury' habit and, since, according to the Latin saying, 'scripta mannent, verba volant' (Caius Titus: spoken words fly away, but written words remain), I managed to collect the following Life Coaching Quotes of Wisdom:

Charles Darwin:
"It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent, but the one most responsive to change."

Paulo Coelho ('The alchemist'):
"I have inside me the winds, the deserts, the oceans, the stars and everything created in the universe. We were all made by the same hand, and we have the same soul."

Thomas Jefferson:
"Nothing can stop the man with the right mental attitude from achieving his goal; nothing on earth can help the man with the wrong mental attitude."
                                                                 
Victor Hugo:


"Intelligence is the wife, imagination is the mistress, memory is the servant".

Vivian Greene (Author):
"Life isn't about waiting for the storm to pass. It's about learning to dance in the rain"!!!!!!

Sigmund Freud:
"Neurosis is the inability to tolerate ambiguity".
"No man can be happy without a friend, nor be sure of his friend till he is unhappy".
"If youth knew; if age could".
"The great question that has never been answered is , 'what does a woman want?' ( in the year 2016, we're still trying to figure it out, lol)".

Aristotle:
"Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all".

Buddha:
"When you realize how perfect everything is, you will tilt your head back and laugh at the sky".

Carl Gustav Jung:


Life really does begin at forty. Up until then, you are just doing research.

Albert Einstein
"Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value".

Marilyn Monroe:
 

"Nothing lasts forever. So live it up, drink it down, laugh it off, avoid the drama, take chances and never have regrets because at one point everything you did was exactly what you wanted".

Abraham Maslow:
"In any given moment we have two options: to step forward into growth or to step back into safety".

Erich Fromm:
"In the social jungle of human existence there is no feeling of being alive without a sense of identity".

William James:
"Act as if what you do makes a difference. It does".

Confucius:
"Find a job you love and you'll never work a day in your life".

Eleanor Roosevelt:


"Great minds discuss ideas; average minds discuss events; small minds discuss people".
"The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams".
"Happiness is not a goal; it is a by-product".
 "People grow through experience if they meet life honestly and courageously. This is how character is built".

"Some people,simply, adjust and some things never change" (my quote, lol). 

 

References

http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/e/eleanor_roosevelt.html,

www.pinterest.com,

http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/132836-life-isn-t-about-waiting-for-the-storm-to-pass-it-s-about.

Picture Source Links

http://quotesgram.com/inspirational-coaching-quotes/,

http://www.bookabacus.com/9780448435091,

http://freethoughtalmanac.com/?p=1467,

https://gr.pinterest.com/explore/marilyn-monroe-makeup/,

http://www.famouspsychologists.org/carl-gustav-jung/,

ht

tp://www.sarinadamen.com.au/inspirational-quotes.html.

Tim Voridis

Organisational Psychologist/Consultant - Communication and Personality Specialist

'Innovation for a brighter future'.